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Home  ›  What Is The Makeup Of Chromosomes?

What Is The Makeup Of Chromosomes?

Written By Saturday, 4 June 2022 Add Comment Edit

Dna molecule containing genetic material of a prison cell

Diagram of a replicated and condensed metaphase eukaryotic chromosome. (ane) Chromatid – i of the two identical parts of the chromosome after S phase. (2) Centromere – the point where the ii chromatids bear on. (3) Short arm (p). (4) Long arm (q).

A chromosome is a long Deoxyribonucleic acid molecule with office or all of the genetic material of an organism. Nearly eukaryotic chromosomes include packaging proteins called histones which, aided by chaperone proteins, bind to and condense the DNA molecule to maintain its integrity.[ane] [2] These chromosomes display a complex three-dimensional structure, which plays a significant office in transcriptional regulation.[iii]

Chromosomes are normally visible under a calorie-free microscope but during the metaphase of jail cell division (where all chromosomes are aligned in the center of the cell in their condensed grade).[4] Earlier this happens, each chromosome is duplicated (S stage), and both copies are joined by a centromere, resulting either in an X-shaped structure (pictured in a higher place), if the centromere is located equatorially, or a ii-arm structure, if the centromere is located distally. The joined copies are now called sis chromatids. During metaphase the X-shaped structure is called a metaphase chromosome, which is highly condensed and thus easiest to distinguish and study.[5] In animate being cells, chromosomes reach their highest compaction level in anaphase during chromosome segregation.[6]

Chromosomal recombination during meiosis and subsequent sexual reproduction play a significant role in genetic diversity. If these structures are manipulated incorrectly, through processes known as chromosomal instability and translocation, the cell may undergo mitotic catastrophe. Usually, this will make the cell initiate apoptosis leading to its ain death, but sometimes mutations in the cell hamper this process and thus cause progression of cancer.

Some use the term chromosome in a wider sense, to refer to the individualized portions of chromatin in cells, either visible or not under calorie-free microscopy. Others use the concept in a narrower sense, to refer to the individualized portions of chromatin during cell partitioning, visible under light microscopy due to high condensation.

Etymology [edit]

The word chromosome ([vii] [8]) comes from the Greek χρῶμα (chroma, "colour") and σῶμα (soma, "body"), describing their strong staining by particular dyes.[9] The term was coined past the German anatomist Heinrich Wilhelm Waldeyer,[10] referring to the term chromatin, which was introduced past Walther Flemming, the discoverer of cell division.

Some of the early karyological terms have get outdated.[11] [12] For example, Chromatin (Flemming 1880) and Chromosom (Waldeyer 1888), both ascribe colour to a non-colored land.[thirteen]

History of discovery [edit]

The German scientists Schleiden,[5] Virchow and Bütschli were amid the showtime scientists who recognized the structures now familiar as chromosomes.[14]

In a serial of experiments beginning in the mid-1880s, Theodor Boveri gave definitive contributions to elucidating that chromosomes are the vectors of heredity, with two notions that became known as 'chromosome continuity' and 'chromosome individuality'.[15]

Wilhelm Roux suggested that each chromosome carries a different genetic configuration, and Boveri was able to test and confirm this hypothesis. Aided by the rediscovery at the start of the 1900s of Gregor Mendel's earlier work, Boveri was able to indicate out the connection between the rules of inheritance and the behaviour of the chromosomes. Boveri influenced two generations of American cytologists: Edmund Beecher Wilson, Nettie Stevens, Walter Sutton and Theophilus Painter were all influenced by Boveri (Wilson, Stevens, and Painter really worked with him).[sixteen]

In his famous textbook The Cell in Development and Heredity, Wilson linked together the contained work of Boveri and Sutton (both around 1902) by naming the chromosome theory of inheritance the Boveri–Sutton chromosome theory (the names are sometimes reversed).[17] Ernst Mayr remarks that the theory was hotly contested by some famous geneticists: William Bateson, Wilhelm Johannsen, Richard Goldschmidt and T.H. Morgan, all of a rather dogmatic plow of listen. Eventually, complete proof came from chromosome maps in Morgan'due south ain lab.[18]

The number of human chromosomes was published in 1923 by Theophilus Painter. By inspection through the microscope, he counted 24 pairs, which would mean 48 chromosomes. His fault was copied by others and it was not until 1956 that the true number, 46, was determined by Indonesia-born cytogeneticist Joe Hin Tjio.[19]

Prokaryotes [edit]

The prokaryotes – bacteria and archaea – typically have a single circular chromosome, but many variations exist.[20] The chromosomes of nigh bacteria, which some authors prefer to call genophores, can range in size from only 130,000 base pairs in the endosymbiotic bacteria Candidatus Hodgkinia cicadicola [21] and Candidatus Tremblaya princeps,[22] to more than than 14,000,000 base pairs in the soil-dwelling bacterium Sorangium cellulosum.[23] Spirochaetes of the genus Borrelia are a notable exception to this organisation, with bacteria such as Borrelia burgdorferi, the cause of Lyme disease, containing a single linear chromosome.[24]

Structure in sequences [edit]

Prokaryotic chromosomes have less sequence-based structure than eukaryotes. Bacteria typically accept a one-signal (the origin of replication) from which replication starts, whereas some archaea incorporate multiple replication origins.[25] The genes in prokaryotes are ofttimes organized in operons, and practise not normally contain introns, dissimilar eukaryotes.

Deoxyribonucleic acid packaging [edit]

Prokaryotes exercise non possess nuclei. Instead, their DNA is organized into a structure called the nucleoid.[26] [27] The nucleoid is a distinct structure and occupies a divers region of the bacterial cell. This structure is, however, dynamic and is maintained and remodeled past the actions of a range of histone-like proteins, which associate with the bacterial chromosome.[28] In archaea, the Dna in chromosomes is even more organized, with the DNA packaged within structures similar to eukaryotic nucleosomes.[29] [xxx]

Certain bacteria also comprise plasmids or other extrachromosomal DNA. These are circular structures in the cytoplasm that comprise cellular Dna and play a function in horizontal gene transfer.[5] In prokaryotes (see nucleoids) and viruses,[31] the DNA is ofttimes densely packed and organized; in the example of archaea, past homology to eukaryotic histones, and in the example of bacteria, by histone-similar proteins.

Bacterial chromosomes tend to be tethered to the plasma membrane of the leaner. In molecular biology application, this allows for its isolation from plasmid Dna by centrifugation of lysed leaner and pelleting of the membranes (and the attached DNA).

Prokaryotic chromosomes and plasmids are, like eukaryotic Deoxyribonucleic acid, generally supercoiled. The DNA must first exist released into its relaxed state for access for transcription, regulation, and replication.

Eukaryotes [edit]

Organisation of DNA in a eukaryotic jail cell

Each eukaryotic chromosome consists of a long linear DNA molecule associated with proteins, forming a compact complex of proteins and Dna called chromatin. Chromatin contains the vast majority of the DNA of an organism, only a small amount inherited maternally, can be found in the mitochondria. It is nowadays in near cells, with a few exceptions, for example, cherry claret cells.

Histones are responsible for the starting time and most basic unit of chromosome organisation, the nucleosome.

Eukaryotes (cells with nuclei such equally those found in plants, fungi, and animals) possess multiple large linear chromosomes contained in the cell'due south nucleus. Each chromosome has one centromere, with one or two artillery projecting from the centromere, although, under almost circumstances, these arms are not visible as such. In add-on, most eukaryotes have a modest circular mitochondrial genome, and some eukaryotes may have additional small-scale circular or linear cytoplasmic chromosomes.

The major structures in DNA compaction: Deoxyribonucleic acid, the nucleosome, the x nm "beads-on-a-string" fibre, the 30 nm fibre and the metaphase chromosome.

In the nuclear chromosomes of eukaryotes, the uncondensed Dna exists in a semi-ordered structure, where it is wrapped effectually histones (structural proteins), forming a composite material chosen chromatin.

Interphase chromatin [edit]

The packaging of DNA into nucleosomes causes a 10 nanometer fibre which may further condense up to thirty nm fibres[32] Most of the euchromatin in interphase nuclei appears to be in the form of xxx-nm fibers.[32] Chromatin construction is the more than decondensed state, i.eastward. the ten-nm conformation allows transcription.[32]

Heterochromatin vs. euchromatin

During interphase (the period of the cell cycle where the cell is non dividing), ii types of chromatin tin can exist distinguished:

  • Euchromatin, which consists of DNA that is active, e.one thousand., beingness expressed as protein.
  • Heterochromatin, which consists of more often than not inactive DNA. Information technology seems to serve structural purposes during the chromosomal stages. Heterochromatin tin be further distinguished into 2 types:
    • Constitutive heterochromatin, which is never expressed. It is located around the centromere and unremarkably contains repetitive sequences.
    • Facultative heterochromatin, which is sometimes expressed.

Metaphase chromatin and division [edit]

Stages of early mitosis in a vertebrate prison cell with micrographs of chromatids

In the early on stages of mitosis or meiosis (jail cell division), the chromatin double helix become more than and more than condensed. They cease to part as accessible genetic textile (transcription stops) and go a compact transportable course. The loops of xxx-nm chromatin fibers are thought to fold upon themselves further to form the compact metaphase chromosomes of mitotic cells. The Deoxyribonucleic acid is thus condensed virtually 10,000 fold.[32]

The chromosome scaffold, which is made of proteins such as condensin, TOP2A and KIF4,[33] plays an of import function in holding the chromatin into compact chromosomes. Loops of 30 nm structure further condense with scaffold into college lodge structures.[34]

This highly meaty form makes the private chromosomes visible, and they form the classic four-arm construction, a pair of sister chromatids fastened to each other at the centromere. The shorter arms are called p arms (from the French petit, pocket-sized) and the longer arms are called q artillery (q follows p in the Latin alphabet; q-g "grande"; alternatively it is sometimes said q is short for queue meaning tail in French[35]). This is the only natural context in which private chromosomes are visible with an optical microscope.

Mitotic metaphase chromosomes are best described by a linearly organized longitudinally compressed assortment of consecutive chromatin loops.[36]

During mitosis, microtubules grow from centrosomes located at reverse ends of the prison cell and also attach to the centromere at specialized structures called kinetochores, 1 of which is present on each sister chromatid. A special Dna base sequence in the region of the kinetochores provides, forth with special proteins, longer-lasting attachment in this region. The microtubules so pull the chromatids autonomously toward the centrosomes, then that each daughter cell inherits one set of chromatids. In one case the cells have divided, the chromatids are uncoiled and Dna tin once more be transcribed. In spite of their appearance, chromosomes are structurally highly condensed, which enables these behemothic Deoxyribonucleic acid structures to be contained within a cell nucleus.

Human being chromosomes [edit]

Chromosomes in humans can exist divided into two types: autosomes (trunk chromosome(southward)) and allosome (sex chromosome(southward)). Sure genetic traits are linked to a person's sex and are passed on through the sex activity chromosomes. The autosomes incorporate the rest of the genetic hereditary information. All deed in the same way during cell partition. Human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes (22 pairs of autosomes and ane pair of sexual practice chromosomes), giving a total of 46 per cell. In addition to these, homo cells have many hundreds of copies of the mitochondrial genome. Sequencing of the human genome has provided a neat deal of information about each of the chromosomes. Below is a table compiling statistics for the chromosomes, based on the Sanger Institute's human genome information in the Vertebrate Genome Annotation (VEGA) database.[37] Number of genes is an gauge, as it is in function based on gene predictions. Full chromosome length is an guess too, based on the estimated size of unsequenced heterochromatin regions.

Chromosome Genes[38] Total base pairs % of bases Sequenced base of operations pairs[39] % sequenced base pairs
1 2000 247,199,719 8.0 224,999,719 91.02%
two 1300 242,751,149 vii.nine 237,712,649 97.92%
3 thou 199,446,827 half-dozen.5 194,704,827 97.62%
4 1000 191,263,063 6.two 187,297,063 97.93%
5 900 180,837,866 five.9 177,702,766 98.27%
vi grand 170,896,993 5.5 167,273,993 97.88%
7 900 158,821,424 5.2 154,952,424 97.56%
8 700 146,274,826 four.vii 142,612,826 97.50%
9 800 140,442,298 four.vi 120,312,298 85.67%
10 700 135,374,737 4.iv 131,624,737 97.23%
11 1300 134,452,384 iv.4 131,130,853 97.53%
12 1100 132,289,534 4.3 130,303,534 98.50%
13 300 114,127,980 3.7 95,559,980 83.73%
14 800 106,360,585 three.5 88,290,585 83.01%
15 600 100,338,915 iii.3 81,341,915 81.07%
16 800 88,822,254 two.9 78,884,754 88.81%
17 1200 78,654,742 2.six 77,800,220 98.91%
xviii 200 76,117,153 2.5 74,656,155 98.08%
19 1500 63,806,651 ii.1 55,785,651 87.43%
20 500 62,435,965 2.0 59,505,254 95.31%
21 200 46,944,323 ane.five 34,171,998 72.79%
22 500 49,528,953 1.6 34,893,953 70.45%
Ten (sex chromosome) 800 154,913,754 five.0 151,058,754 97.51%
Y (sexual practice chromosome) 200[40] 57,741,652 i.nine 25,121,652 43.51%
Total 21,000 3,079,843,747 100.0 2,857,698,560 92.79%

Number in various organisms [edit]

In eukaryotes [edit]

The number of chromosomes in eukaryotes is highly variable (encounter tabular array). In fact, chromosomes can fuse or break and thus evolve into novel karyotypes. Chromosomes can also be fused artificially. For example, the 16 chromosomes of yeast have been fused into one giant chromosome and the cells were yet viable with merely somewhat reduced growth rates.[41]

The tables beneath give the total number of chromosomes (including sex chromosomes) in a jail cell nucleus. For case, well-nigh eukaryotes are diploid, like humans who take 22 different types of autosomes, each nowadays as ii homologous pairs, and two sex activity chromosomes. This gives 46 chromosomes in full. Other organisms accept more than ii copies of their chromosome types, such as bread wheat, which is hexaploid and has six copies of seven unlike chromosome types – 42 chromosomes in total.

Chromosome numbers in some plants
Establish species #
Arabidopsis thaliana (diploid)[42] 10
Rye (diploid)[43] 14
Einkorn wheat (diploid)[44] fourteen
Maize (diploid or palaeotetraploid)[45] 20
Durum wheat (tetraploid)[44] 28
Staff of life wheat (hexaploid)[44] 42
Cultivated tobacco (tetraploid)[46] 48
Adder's tongue fern (polyploid)[47] approx. 1,200
Chromosome numbers (2n) in some animals
Species #
Indian muntjac 7
Common fruit fly 8
Pill millipede (Arthrosphaera fumosa)[48] 30
Earthworm (Octodrilus complanatus)[49] 36
Tibetan fox 36
Domestic cat[l] 38
Domestic sus scrofa 38
Laboratory mouse[51] [52] 40
Laboratory rat[52] 42
Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)[53] 44
Syrian hamster[51] 44
Guppy (poecilia reticulata)[54] 46
Homo[55] 46
Hares[56] [57] 48
Gorillas, chimpanzees[55] 48
Domestic sheep 54
Garden snail[58] 54
Silkworm[59] 56
Elephant[threescore] 56
Moo-cow 60
Donkey 62
Guinea pig[61] 64
Horse 64
Canis familiaris[62] 78
Hedgehog 90
Goldfish[63] 100–104
Kingfisher[64] 132
Chromosome numbers in other organisms
Species Big
chromosomes		 Intermediate
chromosomes		 Microchromosomes
Trypanosoma brucei xi 6 ≈100
Domestic pigeon
(Columba livia domestica)[65] 		xviii – 59–63
Chicken[66] viii ii sex chromosomes 60

Normal members of a detail eukaryotic species all take the same number of nuclear chromosomes (see the tabular array). Other eukaryotic chromosomes, i.e., mitochondrial and plasmid-similar minor chromosomes, are much more than variable in number, and in that location may be thousands of copies per cell.

Asexually reproducing species take one set of chromosomes that are the same in all trunk cells. However, asexual species can be either haploid or diploid.

Sexually reproducing species take somatic cells (torso cells), which are diploid [2n] having ii sets of chromosomes (23 pairs in humans), one set from the mother and 1 from the father. Gametes, reproductive cells, are haploid [n]: They have one set of chromosomes. Gametes are produced by meiosis of a diploid germ line cell. During meiosis, the matching chromosomes of begetter and mother can commutation pocket-size parts of themselves (crossover), and thus create new chromosomes that are non inherited solely from either parent. When a male and a female gamete merge (fertilization), a new diploid organism is formed.

Some animal and plant species are polyploid [Xn]: They take more than 2 sets of homologous chromosomes. Plants important in agriculture such as tobacco or wheat are frequently polyploid, compared to their ancestral species. Wheat has a haploid number of vii chromosomes, withal seen in some cultivars besides as the wild progenitors. The more than-common pasta and staff of life wheat types are polyploid, having 28 (tetraploid) and 42 (hexaploid) chromosomes, compared to the 14 (diploid) chromosomes in the wild wheat.[67]

In prokaryotes [edit]

Prokaryote species by and large have ane copy of each major chromosome, but most cells can easily survive with multiple copies.[68] For instance, Buchnera, a symbiont of aphids has multiple copies of its chromosome, ranging from 10–400 copies per prison cell.[69] Nevertheless, in some big bacteria, such as Epulopiscium fishelsoni upward to 100,000 copies of the chromosome tin be nowadays.[lxx] Plasmids and plasmid-like small chromosomes are, as in eukaryotes, highly variable in copy number. The number of plasmids in the prison cell is virtually entirely adamant by the rate of sectionalization of the plasmid – fast segmentation causes high copy number.

Karyotype [edit]

Karyogram of a man male

In general, the karyotype is the characteristic chromosome complement of a eukaryote species.[71] The training and written report of karyotypes is office of cytogenetics.

Although the replication and transcription of DNA is highly standardized in eukaryotes, the same cannot be said for their karyotypes, which are frequently highly variable. There may exist variation between species in chromosome number and in detailed organization. In some cases, there is significant variation within species. Oftentimes there is:

1. variation between the two sexes
ii. variation betwixt the germ-line and soma (betwixt gametes and the rest of the body)
3. variation betwixt members of a population, due to balanced genetic polymorphism
4. geographical variation betwixt races
5. mosaics or otherwise aberrant individuals.

Besides, variation in karyotype may occur during evolution from the fertilized egg.

The technique of determining the karyotype is usually chosen karyotyping. Cells can be locked part-style through partitioning (in metaphase) in vitro (in a reaction vial) with colchicine. These cells are and then stained, photographed, and arranged into a karyogram, with the set up of chromosomes bundled, autosomes in society of length, and sex activity chromosomes (here X/Y) at the finish.

Similar many sexually reproducing species, humans take special gonosomes (sex chromosomes, in contrast to autosomes). These are XX in females and XY in males.

History and analysis techniques [edit]

Investigation into the man karyotype took many years to settle the most basic question: How many chromosomes does a normal diploid man cell contain? In 1912, Hans von Winiwarter reported 47 chromosomes in spermatogonia and 48 in oogonia, concluding an XX/XO sex determination machinery.[72] Painter in 1922 was non certain whether the diploid number of man is 46 or 48, at first favouring 46.[73] He revised his opinion later on from 46 to 48, and he correctly insisted on humans having an XX/XY organization.[74]

New techniques were needed to definitively solve the trouble:

  1. Using cells in culture
  2. Absorbing mitosis in metaphase by a solution of colchicine
  3. Pretreating cells in a hypotonic solution 0.075 M KCl, which swells them and spreads the chromosomes
  4. Squashing the grooming on the slide forcing the chromosomes into a single airplane
  5. Cut up a photomicrograph and arranging the event into an indisputable karyogram.

It took until 1954 before the human diploid number was confirmed as 46.[75] [76] Because the techniques of Winiwarter and Painter, their results were quite remarkable.[77] Chimpanzees, the closest living relatives to modern humans, have 48 chromosomes as practise the other great apes: in humans two chromosomes fused to form chromosome ii.

Aberrations [edit]

In Downward syndrome, there are three copies of chromosome 21.

Chromosomal aberrations are disruptions in the normal chromosomal content of a prison cell and are a major cause of genetic conditions in humans,[78] such as Down's syndrome, although most aberrations accept little to no event. Some chromosome abnormalities practice non cause disease in carriers, such as translocations, or chromosomal inversions, although they may lead to a higher gamble of bearing a child with a chromosome disorder. Abnormal numbers of chromosomes or chromosome sets, chosen aneuploidy, may exist lethal or may requite ascent to genetic disorders.[79] Genetic counseling is offered for families that may acquit a chromosome rearrangement.

The gain or loss of Deoxyribonucleic acid from chromosomes can lead to a variety of genetic disorders. [eighty]Human examples include:

  • Cri du chat, which is acquired by the deletion of office of the brusk arm of chromosome 5. "Cri du chat" means "weep of the cat" in French; the condition was so-named because affected babies make loftier-pitched cries that audio like those of a cat. Afflicted individuals have wide-prepare eyes, a small caput and jaw, moderate to severe mental health problems, and are very brusk.
  • Down syndrome, the about common trisomy, usually caused by an extra re-create of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21). Characteristics include decreased muscle tone, stockier build, asymmetrical skull, slanting eyes and mild to moderate developmental disability.[81]
  • Edwards syndrome, or trisomy-eighteen, the 2d almost mutual trisomy.[82] Symptoms include motor retardation, developmental disability and numerous congenital anomalies causing serious health problems. 90 percent of those afflicted die in infancy. They have feature clenched hands and overlapping fingers.
  • Isodicentric xv, also called idic(15), partial tetrasomy 15q, or inverted duplication xv (inv dup 15).
  • Jacobsen syndrome, which is very rare. Information technology is besides called the last 11q deletion disorder.[83] Those affected have normal intelligence or mild developmental disability, with poor expressive language skills. Most have a haemorrhage disorder called Paris-Trousseau syndrome.
  • Klinefelter syndrome (XXY). Men with Klinefelter syndrome are usually sterile and tend to be taller and take longer arms and legs than their peers. Boys with the syndrome are oftentimes shy and quiet and accept a college incidence of speech delay and dyslexia. Without testosterone treatment, some may develop gynecomastia during puberty.
  • Patau Syndrome, also called D-Syndrome or trisomy-xiii. Symptoms are somewhat similar to those of trisomy-18, without the characteristic folded hand.
  • Small supernumerary marker chromosome. This means in that location is an actress, abnormal chromosome. Features depend on the origin of the extra genetic textile. Cat-center syndrome and isodicentric chromosome 15 syndrome (or Idic15) are both caused by a supernumerary mark chromosome, as is Pallister–Killian syndrome.
  • Triple-X syndrome (Thirty). XXX girls tend to be tall and sparse and have a higher incidence of dyslexia.
  • Turner syndrome (X instead of 20 or XY). In Turner syndrome, female sexual characteristics are present but underdeveloped. Females with Turner syndrome often have a brusk stature, low hairline, aberrant center features and bone development and a "caved-in" appearance to the chest.
  • Wolf–Hirschhorn syndrome, which is acquired by partial deletion of the curt arm of chromosome four. It is characterized past growth retardation, delayed motor skills evolution, "Greek Helmet" facial features, and mild to profound mental wellness bug.
  • XYY syndrome. XYY boys are usually taller than their siblings. Like XXY boys and XXX girls, they are more likely to have learning difficulties.

Sperm aneuploidy [edit]

Exposure of males to certain lifestyle, environmental and/or occupational hazards may increase the risk of aneuploid spermatozoa.[84] In item, run a risk of aneuploidy is increased by tobacco smoking,[85] [86] and occupational exposure to benzene,[87] insecticides,[88] [89] and perfluorinated compounds.[90] Increased aneuploidy is oftentimes associated with increased DNA damage in spermatozoa.

Meet likewise [edit]

  • Aneuploidy
  • Chromomere
  • Chromosome segregation
  • Cohesin
  • Condensin
  • Dna
  • Genetic deletion
  • Epigenetics
  • For information about chromosomes in genetic algorithms, run across chromosome (genetic algorithm)
  • Genetic genealogy
    • Genealogical Dna test
  • Lampbrush chromosome
  • List of number of chromosomes of various organisms
  • Locus (explains cistron location nomenclature)
  • Maternal influence on sexual practice determination
  • Microchromosome
  • Minichromosome
  • Not-disjunction
  • Secondary chromosome
  • Sexual activity-decision system
    • XY sex-determination system
      • Ten-chromosome
        • X-inactivation
      • Y-chromosome
        • Y-chromosomal Aaron
        • Y-chromosomal Adam
    • ZO sex-determination organisation
    • ZW sex-conclusion system
    • XO sexual activity-determination system
    • Temperature-dependent sex determination
    • Haplodiploid sexual practice-determination system
  • Polytene chromosome
  • Protamine
  • Neochromosome
  • Parasitic chromosome

Notes and references [edit]

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External links [edit]

  • An Introduction to Dna and Chromosomes from HOPES: Huntington's Outreach Projection for Education at Stanford
  • Chromosome Abnormalities at AtlasGeneticsOncology
  • On-line exhibition on chromosomes and genome (SIB)
  • What Tin can Our Chromosomes Tell U.s.a.?, from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Heart
  • Attempt making a karyotype yourself, from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Heart
  • Kimballs Chromosome pages
  • Chromosome News from Genome News Network
  • Eurochromnet, European network for Rare Chromosome Disorders on the Internet
  • Ensembl.org, Ensembl project, presenting chromosomes, their genes and syntenic loci graphically via the web
  • Genographic Project Archived 12 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  • Home reference on Chromosomes from the U.Due south. National Library of Medicine
  • Visualisation of man chromosomes and comparison to other species
  • Unique – The Rare Chromosome Disorder Support Group Support for people with rare chromosome disorders

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosome

Posted by: honeycuttspeakne.blogspot.com

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